Virginia Transit Association

Transit and Land Use

TOD Overview

Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) is generally regarded as a pattern of dense, diverse, pedestrian-friendly land uses near transit nodes that, under the right conditions, translates into higher patronage. A successful TOD project can bring about the following direct or indirect benefits:

Increase transit ridership and reduce number of automobile trips generated
Increase economic development and business transactions
Enhance tax revenues for local governments from rising land values
Expand markets and increase revenues for businesses
Enhance livability and widen housing choices
Provide opportunities for neighborhood connections
Promote attractive, safe, and walkable mixed-use neighborhoods
Increase value and income for property owners
Increase sense of community
Reduce parking demand
Improve air quality and energy conservation
Reduce household fuel costs associated with heavy auto use

Transit stations are at the center of TODs that are generally located within a radius of one-quarter mile from a transit station, as this is considered to be an appropriate scale for pedestrians. TOD provides access to a full range of transportation options:

Walking
Bicycling
Rail Transit
Bus Transit
Automobile

A vibrant mix of land uses can be found in a TOD, such as:

Residential
Retail
Office
Commercial
Institutional

The following references provide a more in-depth overview of TOD.

American Public Transit Association. 2000. Building Better Communities. Washington, DC: American Public Transit Association.

The authors favor integration of land use and transit planning which requires changes to local ordinances, regulations, building codes and procedures. They explain efficient strategies for developers like subdivision and activity design strategies, travel demand strategies, and transportation management associations. They also suggest a host of land use strategies that allow public agencies and developers to integrate the impact of mass transit investments and private sector financial participation. They include designing policies, working with the investment community, ordinances and regulations, urban design considerations, master planning, developer-furnished improvements, adequate public facilities, etc. Thus they conclude that if the land use planning is transit supportive then it can bring about an increase in transit ridership.

(Source: Florida Planning and Development Lab, Department of Urban and Regional Planning Florida State University. (2004). From Bus Shelters to Transit-Oriented Development: A Literature Review of Bus Passenger Facility Planning, Siting, and Design. Report Prepared for Florida Department of Transportation Public Transit Office.)

Atash, F. 1994. Redesigning Suburbia for Walking and Transit: Emerging Concepts. Journal of Urban Planning and Development , ASCE 120 (1), 48-57.

Suburban sprawl has caused many problems in the last several decades. Of particular concern is over reliance on the automobile and the lack of alternative forms of transportation such as walking, bicycling, and transit. The advocates of neo-traditional town planning have developed the traditional neighbourhood development (TND) and pedestrian pocket (PP) concepts for redesigning American suburbia to solve its deficiencies. This paper describes these concepts and then evaluates their potential usefulness to allow walking and transit in suburbia. It is concluded that these concepts offer a unique opportunity to integrate land-use and suburban development policies with transportation policy to stop sprawl and create compact, mixed-use communities. The pedestrian pocket offers a better potential for developing a new suburban growth pattern on a metropolitan scale that is pedestrian- and transit-oriented. Its successful implementation depends on the existence of a supportive metropolitan-scale land-use and transportation plan. Abstract by the author.

Belzer, D. and Autler, G. 2002. Transit-Oriented Development: Moving from Rhetoric to Reality. Brookings Institution Center on Urban and Metropolitan Policy, Washington, D.C.
Available at http://www.brookings.org/es/urban/publications/belzertodexsum.htm

The report offers an expanded definition of TOD that focuses primarily on functions and outcomes rather than on physical form and project configuration. The report identifies challenges that must be addressed and offers policy recommendations to achieve optimal TOD projects.

(Source: http://www.apta.com/research/info/briefings/briefing_8.cfm.)

Bernick, M. and R. Cervero. 1996. Transit Villages in the 21 st Century. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Transit Villages in the 21st Century, By Michael Bernick and Robert Cervero, described as "the first book on a revolution in community planning that's destined to transform - and dramatically improve - the quality of urban and suburban life!"

A reinvigorated rail transit system offering an alternative to traffic jams, urban sprawl, and disconnected land uses... New communities along each metropolitan rail system - consisting of civic plazas near train entrances, pleasant walking environs, diversity in housing, compactness, and the intangibles of a 'sense of place'...

These are the components of the new Transit Villages that are already taking shape in cities and suburbs across America and overseas. Now, there's a comprehensive study of this exciting new trend in community planning!

( Source : http://www.transitvillages.org/costsofsprawl.html.)

Boarnet, M.G. and R. Crane. 2001. Travel by Design: The Influence of Urban Form on Travel. Oxford University Press.

Traffic congestion and pollution are notoriously frustrating for nearly everyone, including those looking for solutions. In his new book, Travel by Design: The Influence of Urban Form on Travel, Associate Professor of Urban Planning Randall Crane and his coauthor Marlon Boarnet of UC Irvine ask: can the right community design improve travel behavior? Travel by Design is a systematic and comprehensive examination of that important question. The book provides a thorough understanding of how urban design influences travel behavior, while analyzing the potential for land-use planning to address traffic problems. As such, it will serve as a key resource for anyone interested in how "New Urbanism," "Smart Growth," or other planning and urban design initiatives relate to transportation policy.

(Source: http://www.spa.ucla.edu/main2.cfm?d=xr&f=news.cfm&s=school&news_id=11.)

Bossard, E. G. et al. (2002). Envisioning Neighborhoods with Transit-Oriented Development Potential (FHWA/CA/OR-2001-25). San Jose, CA: Norman Y. Mineta International Institute for Surface Transportation Policy Studies, San Jose State University.
Available at http://transweb.sjsu.edu/mtiportal/research/publications/documents/envisioning/Envisioning.htm

The Mineta Transportation Institute (MTI) at San Jos State University conducted this study to review the issues and implications involved when seeking to Envision Neighborhoods with Transit Oriented Development (TOD) Potential. The Envisioning Neighborhoods with Transit Oriented Development (TOD) Potential project seeks to introduce planners, developers, and urban analysts to information design techniques and digital computer tools that can be used to undertake and study TOD. A basic premise is that effective TOD requires thoughtful planning to be successfully integrated into the metropolitan fabric. The primary focus of this project is intra-regional comparisons, focusing on information pertaining to the relative desirability of places within a region. Context matters, so data is best understood in a comparative context. Small multiple replicate maps, charts, and digital images can be used to understand many aspects of places with TOD potential. Place comparisons can be made across space, time, and scale. The study focus is on understanding the neighborhoods surrounding transit centers and their context in terms of the character of areas within walking distance (< 1/2 mile), bicycling distance (< 2 miles) and five-mile driving or transit distance. These ranges of analysis include the areas where residents of possible TODs might work, shop, or prefer to go for services. This project includes a comprehensive case study application envisioning the Hayward BART Station area. Other case studies cover the Fruitvale BART in Oakland, Redwood City and Mountain View CalTrain, Campbell LRT site, and Sacramentos 65 th St. Station areas. Abstract by the author.

Cervero, R. 2003. Transit-Oriented Development and Joint Development in the United States: A Literature Review (TCRP Research Results Digest 52). Washington , DC : Transportation Research Board.

This digest summarizes the literature review of TCRP Project H-27, Transit-Oriented Development: State ofthe Practice and Future Benefits. This digest provides definitions of transit-oriented development (TOD) and transit joint development (TJD), describes the institutional issues related to TOD and TJD, and provides examples of the impacts and benefits of TOD and TJD.

(Source: http://pubsindex.trb.org/document/view/default.asp?lbid=726711.)

Cervero, R. et al. 2004. Transit-Oriented Development in the United States: Experiences, Challenges and Prospects (TCRP Report 102). Washington , DC : Transportation Research Board.

This report examines the state of the practice and the benefits of transit-oriented development and joint development throughout the United States. It also offers in-depth case studies of TOD in 10 urban areas in the US.

Evans, J.E. et al. 2007. Traveler Response to Transportation System Changes. Chapter 17-Transit Oriented Development of TCRP Report 95. Washington , DC : Transportation Research Board.

TRB s TCRP Report 95: Traveler Response to Transportation System Changes, Chapter 17--Transit-Oriented Development explores the transit-oriented development ( TOD) land use strategy and its transportation impacts in terms of regional context, land use mix, and primary transit mode. TOD generally refers to higher-density development, with pedestrian priority, located within easy walking distance of a major public transit station or stop.

(Source: http://www.uwm.edu/Dept/CUTS/trb/conf/papers/Resour.htm.)

Goodwill, J., & Hendricks, S. 2002. Building Transit Oriented Development in Established Communities (473-135). Tampa, FL: Center of Urban Transportation Research, University of South Florida.
Available at http://www.nctr.usf.edu/publications.htm, then scroll down to find '473-135' under FY 2002.

This report provides a synthesis of the steps that established car oriented communities have taken to transform into transit oriented communities. The report identifies several approaches, such as the use of transit oriented design, focusing transit oriented development (TOD) around park-and-ride lots, making changes to land development regulations, parking management, offering development incentives, coordinating stakeholders, incorporating transit into future development/redevelopment, crafting TOD design guidelines, pre-designating transit corridors, ensuring pedestrian and bicycle access, adapting transit services to the needs of suburban style communities, offering location efficient mortgages and ideas for dealing with community resistance toward applying transit friendly measures to car oriented communities. This report presents a literature review with conclusions, an annotated bibliography and five case studies of communities that have taken steps to become transit oriented. These communities include Atlanta, Charlotte, Orlando, the Central Puget Sound Region in Washington and Denver. Abstract by the authors.

Good Jobs First. Making the Connection: Transit-Oriented Development and Jobs. March 2006.
Available at http://www.goodjobsfirst.org/pdf/makingtheconnection.pdf

Examines 25 TOD projects around the country that incorporate significant amount of affordable housing and/or make a substantial attempt to create good jobs that can be filled by people from working families.

(Source: http://www.apta.com/research/info/briefings/briefing_8.cfm.)

Kreyling, C. 2001. Hug that Transit Station. Planning , 67 (1), 4-9.

New transit agencies across the country-in New Jersey, Atlanta, the San Francisco Bay region, and elsewhere-are taking up the cause of a new approach to transit station planning. Their hope is that by locating housing and shops within walking distance of stations, they can increase ridership and rejuvenate surrounding communities. One ambitious planned community called Orenco Station is being built around a light rail station in Hillsboro, OR, located ten miles west Portland. When complete in 2002, the development will include more than 1,800 housing units plus offices and shops, on 200 acres of what was originally zoned as industrial land. Extended cases are cited for the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) system in the San Francisco Bay Area, the Atlanta Metropolitan Area Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA), and five so-called transit villages in New Jersey. Strategies for building such complexes are discussed.

Kuzmyak, J. R., Pratt, R. H., & Douglas, G. B. 2003. Traveler Response to Transportation System Changes: Chapter 15Land Use and S ite Design (TCRP Report 95). Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.

TRBs Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 95: Chapter 15 Land Use and Site Design provides information on the relationships between land use/site design and travel behavior. Information in the report is drawn primarily from research studies that have attempted to measure and explain the effects.

This report is part of TCRPs Traveler Response to Transportation System Changes Handbook series. The overarching objective of the Traveler Response to Transportation System Changes Handbook is to equip members of the transportation profession with a comprehensive, readily accessible, interpretive documentation of results and experience obtained across the United States and elsewhere from (1) different types of transportation system changes and policy actions and (2) alternative land use and site development design approaches. This is the second of 19 chapters expected to be published in this series.

(Source: http://www.trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?id=2079.)

Porter, D. 1997. Transit-Focused Development (TCRP Synthesis 20). Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.

This synthesis describes planning and implementation processes leading to development at and near transit stations. It is based on a summary of research and on nineteen agency profiles. Much of the research is based on rail stations, but the policies and planning tools could be applied to bus and multi-modal stations as well. Aspects covered in this synthesis include: 1) the extent and character of development around rail transit stations, with some examples of similar developments at bus transfer stations or other multi-modal centers; 2) the benefits of transit-focused development, potential obstacles to overcome and recommended procedures for achieving them; 3) policies and planning tools adopted by transit agencies, MPOs and local governments to encourage transit focused development are identified and evaluated; and 4) findings and conclusions concerning the conditions conducive to transit focused development and the tools that public agencies can use to encourage it.

Project for Public Spaces. 1997. The Role of Transit in Creating Livable Metropolitan Communities (TCRP Report 22). Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.

This report combines guidelines and case studies to provide a comprehensive approach for improving community livability and transit ridership in the United States. It is directed toward a broad range of individuals and groups in the public and private sectors associated with community, business, and civic organizations, including public transportation providers, local and metropolitan governments, community groups, and private businesses. The reports twelve chapters are divided into three major parts. Part I, Overview and Context, defines the concept of livability and the impact of transportation on livability. It also describes federal support for transit and livable community initiatives, the placemaking approach to livability, and transportation strategies that impact livability. Part II, Roles of Transit in Creating Livable Communities, contains Chapters 3 through 9, which document and present diverse examples of how public transportation supports and enhances community livability. The examples which briefly summarize the experience of the individual communities and the more lengthy case studies are organized by the following topics: creating places for community life; using transit as a catalyst for downtown and neighbourhood renewal; creating opportunities for entrepreneurship and local economic development; improving safety and amenity; making communities accessible and convenient; and shaping community growth. Part III, Implementation, contains Chapters 10 through 12, which provide a guide to implementation. These chapters describe the importance of community-based process for creating livable communities, then describe specific planning, design, and management strategies for livable places.

Project for Public Spaces. 1998. Transit-Friendly Streets: Design and Traffic Management Strategies to Support Livable Communities (TCRP Report 33). Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.

This report will be of interest to individuals seeking to improve the livability of their communities and to those concerned with the role that local streets and public transportation can play in pursuing this goal.

The report presents 10 strategies used in both the United States and Europe to create transit-friendly streets. The strategies are followed by case studies of five communities that have pursued different initiatives to improve their livability by making their streets more transit-friendly. The report culminates with lessons learned from the case studies. The report is very practical and will be useful to transit professionals, transportation planners, engineers, city officials, and local communities.

Renne, J. and J. Wells. 2005. Transit-Oriented Development: Developing a Strategy to Measure Success (NCHRP Research Results Digest 294). Washington , DC : Transportation Research Board.

This digest offers a strategy to systematically evaluate the potential success of transit-oriented development (TOD). The digest identifies and evaluates various indicators of the impacts of TOD, provides the results of a survey of TOD indicators, and identifies ten indicators that can be used to systematically monitor and measure impacts. The digest summarizes research conducted to determine the wide range of outcomes and benefits of TOD and looks at who is evaluating TOD across the United States, what are the most useful indicators, how difficult it is to collect data, and how often progress should be monitored. It concludes with suggestions for developing a strategy to monitor the success of TOD.

(Source: http://pubsindex.trb.org/document/view/default.asp?lbid=753971.)

Shinbein, P. 1997. Multimodal Approaches to Land Use Planning. ITE Journal , 67 (3), 26-32.

In the US suburban land use patterns that exclusively accommodate the automobile afford little choice in other travel mode options and in fact increase automobile trip-making. Walking, biking and mass transit are not encouraged options for most travel due to segregated land uses and low densities resulting in dispersed origins and destinations. In order to make alternative modes more viable, a more balanced approach to planning that includes transportation modes is warranted. Compact, mixed-use land development places employment and retail activities in closer proximity to living areas with designs that favor nonmotorized transportation and transit access. Benefits of these developments include automobile trip reduction, decreased road congestion and lowering of urban area vehicle miles of travel. These new developments do not exclude the automobile; rather they favor pedestrian and transit activity. Bus or rail transit service would be available, providing employment activities in other communities and areas. Abstract by the author.

White, M. 1999. The Zoning and Real Estate Implications of Transit Oriented Development (TCRP LRD 12). Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board.

Local government officials, including attorneys, planners, and urban design professionals, are seeking new approaches to land use and development that will address environmental impacts of increased automobile traffic and loss of open space around cities and towns, and that will alleviate financial pressures on governments and their constituents. Among these approaches is the urban design concept of transit oriented development, which emphasizes that where transit facilities are in place, or planned to be put in place, there should be a mix of commercial, retail, residential, and civic uses within close proximity to the facilities designed for the best possible interface. The highest density would be closest to these fixed gateways or other transit facilities.

This research produced information on legal and other issues associated with transit-oriented development. The report should be useful to transit and development attorneys, financial officials, planners, development officials, and anyone interested in transit-oriented development.

The Voice of Public Transportation in Virginia

Transit and Land Use

TOD Overview